Friday, February 27, 2009

Botanical Tour Nepal

Since ancient times, the people of Nepal have depended upon plants and plant products as a mainstay of everyday life. Today, almost 90% of Nepalese rely on subsistence agriculture, with plants performing a vital role as arable crops, fodder, fruit and vegetables, fuel, building materials and medicines. Nepal is a multiethnic and multilingual country, with more than 60 different ethnic groups speaking about 75 languages. As one would expect, associated with this is a great diversity in plant lore. However, with increasing urbanisation and uptake of modern medicines and agricultural practices, much of this indigenous knowledge is now dwindling and largely only retained by village elders. There is real danger that this will be lost to future generations, and ethnobotanists are busy documenting the wealth of indigenous knowledge for posterity. So far over 1500 plants (1434 flowering plants, 65 ferns and their allies, and 8 conifers and their allies) have been recorded as having at least one use, including more than 650 used as food plants and over 1000 species of wild plants used for medicine.

Botanically Nepal forms a transition zone between the plants of the western Himalaya (including western Asiatic and Mediterranean elements) and the eastern Himalaya (with many Sino-Japanese elements). Adding variety to the mix are Tibetan Plateau (Central Asiatic) plants from the north and humid tropical species of the lowland plains (Terai) from the Gangetic plains of India and further a field into Indochina. Central to this is the Himalayan range itself, a unique series of mountain chains formed by geologically recent mountain building events. These young massifs contribute to the diversity of plants, and have provided barriers to and corridors through which plants migrated during the ice ages.
We are operating Botanical Tour, Treks and Expedition many places and following National Park and Conservation Area in Nepal. Shey-Phoksundo Botanical Trek, Makalu- Barun Botanical Expedition, Himalayan Botanical Paradise Mountain of Botanical Garden, Botanical Garden, Langtang National Park, Sagarmatha National Park, RaRa National park, Shey-Phoksndo National Park, Khaptad National Park, Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve, Makalu Barun Natioanl Park and Conservation Area, Annapurna Conservation Area. Kanchenjunga Conservation Area, Koshi Tappu Wild Reserve, Shivapuri Water Shed Conservation Area, Chitwan National park, Royal Bardia national park, Parsa Wildlife Reserve, Sukla Phant Wildlife Reserve, Manaslu Conservation Park, Manaslu Conservation Area, Annapurna Conservation Area, Kanchenjunga Conservation Area, Langtang National Park, Sagarmatha National Park, Rara National Park, Shey Phoksando National Park, Makalu Barun National Park, Khaptad National Park, Koshi Tapppu Wild Reserve, Royal Chitwan National Park, Royal Bardia National Park, Parsa Wildlife Reserve, Sukla Phant Wildlife Reserve, Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve and Shivapuri Water Shed Consrevation. For more details information about Nepal botanical tour, treks and expedition itinerary please visit bellow readymade itinerary and if you are looking different itinerary please Contact Us
Yarsha Gomba Trekking Nepal
The Himalayan region of Nepal is famous for different types of medicinal plants. Yarshagumba is one of them. The literal meaning of Yarshagumba is summer plants, winter insect. Yarshagumba is currently very popular due to its use as aphrodisiac (sex stimulant) and tonic. Hence its collection and trade is increasing. Considering its importance, the Department of Plant Resources included a programme named as "Study of ...more details
Shey-Phoksundo Botanical Trek
Shey Phoksundo National Park is situated in the trans-Himalayan region of Northwestern Nepal, Dolpa which is also commomly known as Dolpo. This is biggest isolated district of Daulagiri and bordering Tibet. The western part lies She-Phoksundo National Park the biggest National Park of Nepal occupying the area of 3,555 sq. km. The park was established in 1984. It protects deep valleys, unclimbed peaks, remote monasteries and ...more details
Makalu- Barun Botanical Expedition
Makalu - Barun park lies in the Solukhumbu and Sankhuwasabha districts of Eastern Nepal. Makalu - Barun is adjacent with Sagarmatha National Park in the West and to the North, with Qomolongma Nature Reserve in Tibet. This region has one of the richest bio-diversity which comprise of several largely uninhabited watersheds most of which are drained by the Arun river. The world's fifth highest mountain, Mt. Makalu, one of ...more details
Himalayan Botanical Paradise
Langtang National Park is the first National Park designated in 1970 AD. It lies adjacent to the Tibet border and is eight-hours drive from Kathmandu to the park headquarters Dhunche. The national park is allowing the local people to live their lives within the park and therefore a unique harmony between humans and nature can be seen in this zone. The great variety of vegetation is one of the park's most prominent features. It is the ...more details
Mountain of Botanical Garden
Out of four season, Monsoon starts in June when heavy rains of the south-west monsoon arrive. The High Himalaya range blocks the northwards passage of the moist airs, increasing rainfall in Nepal and keeping the areas beyond in deep rain shadow. These same mountains also act as a barrier to the cold fronts sweeping across from central Asia, protecting Nepal and northern India and giving them warmer winters. The high mountains, deep ...more details

Wildlife Safari Nepal

For those who wish to experience the natural environment at its best there is no better place to visit than Nepal. Nepal is a country of exceptional biodiversity and a beautiful natural environment. The tropical jungles of the Terai preserve some of the best wildlife habitat in the subcontinent. The mountainous country also shelters some of the world's most rare animals. Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park and Royal Chitwan National Park with typical natural, cultural and landscape characteristics were listed as World Heritage sites in 1979 and 1984 respectively.The Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, a wetland of international significance, was declared a Ramsar Site in 1987. Nepal has 16 Parks (National Park, Wildlife Reserves and Conservation Areas), occupying 16% of its total geographical area. Jungle safaris on elephant ride or jeep drive are offered at the Parsa Wildlife Reserve, Royal Chitwan National Park, Royal Bardia National Park and the Royal Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve, all of which are located in the low plain land. National parks located specially in the Terai region in the Nepal which attract visitors from all over the world. And a visit gives close up opportunities to view animals as well as experiencing the wilderness. Jungle safari involves game, jungle walk, dugout canoes trips.You ride on an elephant's back or on a four wheeler jeep accompanied by a fully trained guide (also known as expert Naturalists) for the love of nature and animals. In Nepal, Chitwan and Bardia are two hot dishes on the menu. Chitwan accommodates more than 43 species of animals. Among all, the endangered one-horned rhino, Royal Bengal tiger, Gharial crocodile, four-horned antelope, striped hyena and the Gangetic dolphin are the main attractions here. Come explore the jungle with us!We are operating following Wildlifw Fafari in many diffrent National Park & wildlife Reserve Himalayan River in Nepal. Wildlife Safari in Chitwan National Park, Wildlife Safari in Bardia National Park, Wildlife Safari in Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve and Wildlife Safari in Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve. Also we are operating tour and treks Langtang National Park, Sagarmatha National Park, RaRa National park, Shey-Phoksndo National Park, Khaptad National Park, Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve, Makalu Barun Natioanl Park and Conservation Area, Annapurna Conservation Area. Kanchenjunga Conservation Area, Koshi Tappu Wild Reserve, Shivapuri Water Shed Conservation Area, Chitwan National park, Royal Bardia national park, Parsa Wildlife Reserve, Sukla Phant Wildlife Reserve, Manaslu Conservation Park, Manaslu Conservation Area, Annapurna Conservation Area, Kanchenjunga Conservation Area, Langtang National Park, Sagarmatha National Park, Rara National Park, Shey Phoksando National Park, Makalu Barun National Park, Khaptad National Park, Koshi Tapppu Wild Reserve, Royal Chitwan National Park, Royal Bardia National Park, Parsa Wildlife Reserve, Sukla Phant Wildlife Reserve, Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve and Shivapuri Water Shed Consrevation. For more details information about wildlife safari please visit bellow and if you are looking any other information pleaseContact Us
Wildlife Safari in Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve
Predominant sal forests associated with asna, simal, karma, khair and sisso are found along the riversides of the reserve. Large grasslands, phantas, are found within the reserve. Main grass species include Imperate cylindrica and Saccharum heteropogon, used extensively by the local people for thatching. The reserve provides prime habitat for swamp deer, with an estimated population of 2000 found here. Other animals ...more details
Wildlife Safari in Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve
The reserve is a wetland of international significance. In 1987, it was declared a Ramsar site. It is home to more than 280 bird species including 20 duck species, 2 species of ibises, many storks, egrets and herons. The endangered swamp partridge and Bengal florican are found here. The Koshi Barge is an extremely important resting-place for migratory birds. The last surviving population of wild buffalo or arna is found here. The ...more details
Wildlife Safari in Bardia National Park
The Park is the largest and most undisturbed wilderness area in the Terai. About 70% of the Park is covered with dominantly sal forest with a balanced mixture of grassland, savanna and riverine forest. Approximately 1500 inhabitants of this valley have been resettled elsewhere. Since farming has ceased in the Babai balley, natural vegetation is regenerating, making it an area of prime habitat for Wildlife. The Park provides excellent ...more details
Wildlife Safari in Chitwan National Park
The Royal Chitwan National Park is situated in south central Nepal, covering 932 km2 in the subtropical lowlands of the inner Terai. The area comprising the Tikauli forest-from Rapti river to the foothills of the Mahabharat-extending over an area of 175 km2 was declared Mahendra Mriga Kunj (Mahendra Deer Park) by the late King Mahendra in 1959. In 1963, the area south of Rapti River was demarcated as a rhinoceros sanctuary. The area ...more details

Survival Tourism Nepal

The word survival is a very ambiguous one, and connotes a wide variety of meanings and associated skills. The skills that are being offered in the ensuing course are those of a traditional woodsman travelling and living in the northern wilds.
The daily use of these skills will be facilitated by learning them in a progressive manner during the course of the canoe trip. Travel will be in the Nepal mountain forest area where we will be surrounded by imposing white peaks of mountain Ranges, many with glaciers on their north faces. We'll be travelling on a mix of flat and moving water where a rich menu of strokes will be taught. In some places we will track and pole up incoming rivers and then canoe down them. Exact areas selected will be dependent on current water levels.
We will also hike into the mountains to do our topo map work, animal stalking, plant gathering, etc... Animals inhabiting this area include moose, black and grizzly bears, dall sheep, mountain goats, wolves, wolverine, caribou, otter and beaver. If not actually sighted, we'll see tracks and signs of many of them.
Bear defense tactics will be discussed and demonstrated. It is vital to understand their behaviour and then deal with them accordingly.
Food, grub, vittles -- by any name, a focal point of each day. Delicious meals will display Course skills as an unusual modern wilderness-nutrition advocate using organic foods and precise preparation. Although fish, and possibly small game, will be included in the meal offerings, vegetarians will be totally comfortable with our fare.
Fishing for trout and Arctic grayling is excellent, and the inclusion of lightweight spinning equipment and/or a fly rod is suggested. A belt knife is strongly recommended, either folding or fixed-blade for dressing fish and small game. We have Dick's favourite one available if desired.
Reading animal tracks and sign, and stalking animals, will be practised whenever the opportunity arises. We also will become familiar with the local flora and various of its edible and medicinal qualities.
Upon completion of this trip, a participant should be able to travel comfortably and safely through ways of easy to moderate difficulty and with a deep appreciation and respect for the wilderness.
The course/trip is scheduled as per required. An equipment check list will be sent when deposit is made.
Traditional SkillsFlat-water and whitewater canoe techniques Poling, tracking and lining canoes Edible and medicinal plant foraging Topographic map and compass travel Axes: selection, sharpening and maintenance Saw and axe handling: falling and bucking for firewood Fire-building: one match, every time, under-all-conditions Knots: a practical minimum Bush knives: selection, sharpening and use Open-fire camp cookery Bush first aid Tracking, reading sign and stalking The Whelen lean-to and tarp use Example: Aboriginal Skills Fire by friction Cordage making Stone tool making Working bone and antler Primitive shelters Basket making En Route Commentary:
With an educational background in wildlife biology, overlain by forty years works as a professional outdoors man and guide delivers provocative and informative insights to human and natural history along the waterways, as well as a philosophy of wilderness living.
For more details information about Survival Tourism Nepal please Contact Us

Plant and Tourism in Nepal

Nepalese tourism industry depends on its rich natural and cultural treasures. High snow-capped mountains, wildlife, dense forests, flora and fauna, bio-diversity, rushing rivers, lakes and different verity of living species account for Nepal’s immense natural assets for tourism whereas ancient monuments, arts and architectures, feasts and festivals, languages and cultures stand out as cultural properties of the country. Climate change directly affects the natural and indirectly affects the cultural aspects of Nepal’s unique tourism products.
Kathmandu (AsiaNews) - Foreign tourists who visit Nepal must personally plant a tree or sponsor one, to reduce the effects of climate change and contribute to the protection of the environment. The decision comes from Nepal's tourism board, on the occasion of the "World Day of Tourism", celebrated last September 27 with the slogan: "Tourism Responding to the Challenge of Climate Change.”
The government initiative will last for one year, concluding on September 27, 2009; according to Prachanda Man Shrestha, head of the tourism board, the tax is the price that "tourists will have to pay for their contribution to carbon emissions generated through the goods they use while in Nepal". The funds will be used to "promote sustainable development", and will be collected in all 75 districts of the country; the tourism ministry and tourism board have provided 14,000 U.S. dollars to fund the project, a figure that will increase with the contributions made by tourists.
Hisila Yami, the Nepalese minister for tourism and civil aviation, stresses the importance of "environmentally sustainable tourism", and calls upon domestic and foreign tourists to "contribute to the protection of nature and of the beauty of the country" with lifestyles of "low environmental impact". Nepal is a destination for tourists worldwide because of its mountain climbing, fascinating Himalayan landscapes, and broad valleys. The minister decided to take part personally in the initiative, donating 136 U.S. dollars from his own pocket for the environmental fund.
Finally, in order to ensure the safety of foreign tourists, the tourism board has provided a telephone number to be contacted in case of emergencies or necessities, active around the clock for unrestricted access by the visitor.

Plants and People of Nepal

One should not be too free with the word “masterwork,” but when a book covers the subject as thoroughly and completely as this, it is hard to know what else to call it. There is nothing which could be added to make it more comprehensive.
Dr. Manandhar is government ethnobotanist to the Kingdom of Nepal, a country is which political turmoil has been the rule and not the exception for several years. For reasons to which he could only allude, the author had to work against the active interference and disapproval of his colleagues and superiors. Even if this were only a modest book, the achievement is still remarkable. To have produced a thorough treatise on the accumulated folk wisdom of a people living in one of the richest botanical environments in the world is a triumph. It has taken him nearly forty years. One is lost in admiration.
Plants and People of Nepal is a handsome volume. Timber Press has enhanced the significance of the content by giving it large clear format and pages which lie flat in spite of their very large number. The main section of the book comprises beautiful line drawings of each plan, together with a clear and accurate botanical description, the English and Nepalese plant name, and the uses to which it is put. There are a few judiciously chosen colored plates showing people in their villages actively using the fibres, seeds or other parts of a plant which are valuable to them.
Ethnobotany is a difficult scientific discipline, requiring not only conventional botanical knowledge, and preferably something about medicine, but also a great knowledge of, and sensitivity to, timeless customs which often vary by tribe or district, as well as an ability to make oneself understood by groups which seldom mingle with the outside and speak numerous dialects. The author grew up in a quiet Nepalese village, devoted to his grandparents and absorbing their knowledge of the biota around them. He simply assumed that all citizens of Nepal shared this knowledge.
When he found that city-dwellers were completely cut off from it, rejecting it as backward folk lore, he conceived the idea of preserving the traditions in a scientific manner. A number of valuable modern medicines had their beginning in folk tradition: ephedrine for asthma, dioscorea root for reproductive hormones, and digitalis (fox glove) for heart failure are just a few.
Nepal lies within the great Himalayan range. The Sanskrit word Himalaya stands for “abode of the snow”, and that is how we think of the area. In spite of being a very small country, Nepal covers the gamut of climatic extremes and this contributes to the richness of its flora. Many of the great plant explorers brought rhododendron and other glorious ornamental plants from Nepal. When a plant collector simply wrote “Himalaya” as a source of his discovery, quite frequently it came from Nepal
This book is a permanent source of wisdom for readers who are willing to spend a little time with it.
Plants and People of Nepal Narayan P. ManandharPortland, OR Timber Press - 2002
Review by Judith M. Taylor, M. D.http://www.horthistoria.com/The San Francisco Garden ClubNew member of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society

Thursday, February 26, 2009

Himalayan Biological Hotspots

The Himalaya include all of the world's mountain peaks that exceed 8 000 m in height —including the world's tallest, Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest)— and several of the world's deepest river gorges. This is the youngest and the highest mountain chain on Earth, and stretches in an arc over 3 000 km across northern Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, the northwestern and northeastern states of India adjoining Myanmar, and the southwest China border in the east. This immense mountain range has been divided into two regions: the Eastern Himalaya, which covers parts of Nepal, Bhutan, the northeast Indian states of West Bengal, Sikkim, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh, southeast Tibet (China), and northern Myanmar; and the Western Himalaya, covering the Kumaon-Garhwal, northwest Kashmir, and northern Pakistan (Mani 1994). While these divisions are largely artificial (Mani 1994), the deep defile carved by the antecedent Kali Gandaki River between the Annapurna and Dhaulagiri mountains has been an effective dispersal barrier to many species, and provides a biogeographic basis for defining the distinct Eastern and Western Himalaya along the length of the mountain range (Wikramanayake et al. 2002). In total, the area covers some 741 706 km2.
Biogeographically, the Himalayan Mountain Range straddles a transition zone between the Palearctic and Indo-Malayan realms, with species from both contributing to its biodiversity. Understanding the distribution of biodiversity requires some knowledge of the genesis of the Himalaya, and the complex geological and physical features that influence patterns of biodiversity (Molnar 1986). At about 45 million years, the Himalayan Mountain Range is geologically young. The mountains were formed as a result of geologic faulting during the massive collision between Eurasia and the northward-drifting Deccan Plate, which detached from the southeastern margin of Africa more than 200 million years ago. The subduction of the Deccan Plate raised the southern margin of Eurasia and, because the Deccan Plate is still moving northward, both Tibet and the Inner Himalaya continue to be pushed upwards even today.
The Himalayan Range now exerts considerable influence on weather patterns throughout most of South Asia. During the summer, a zone of low pressure forms over the Asian landmass, inducing a moistureladen monsoon wind from the Bay of Bengal to be funneled through the Ganges River Valley. The winds deluge the eastern extent of the mountain range, while the western extent remains drier. The water flows back into the Indian Ocean along the rivers that drain the southern slopes, carrying with them sediments eroded from the unstable, steep mountains. The sediments are deposited along the foothills to form extensive and highly productive alluvial plains of unconsolidated sediment traversed by innumerable braided rivers.
The abrupt rise of the mountains from less than 500 m to over 8 000 m results in a diversity of ecosystems that range over only a couple of hundred kilometers from alluvial grasslands and subtropical broadleaf forests along the foothills to temperate broadleaf forests in the mid hills, which transition into mixed conifer forests, and conifer forests in the higher hills and alpine meadows above the treeline. These ecosystems are layered as narrow bands along the longitudinal axis of the mountain range, and include several ecoregions (Wikramanayake et al. 2002). But the rugged terrain also creates microenvironments within these ecoregions that harbor different ecological communities and assemblages. Thus, the biogeographic, climatic, geological, and altitudinal variations, as well as the topographic complexity, all combine to contribute to the biological diversity of the Himalaya along their east-west and north-south axes.
Below 1 000 m, the forests and open woodland savannas are dominated by drought-deciduous floral communities with affinities to the Indo-Chinese tropical monsoon forests. Characteristic species include dipterocarps, such as sal (Shorea robusta) on the Nepalese terai and Vatica lanceaefolia, Dipterocarpus retusus, D. turbinatus, and Shorea assamica in the Assam Valley further to the east. Low-lying areas, subject to floods during the monsoon, support mixed evergreen forests. The alluvial grasslands along the foothill valleys are among the tallest in the world. These grasslands are rejuvenated by silt deposited when the rivers that descend from the mountains overflow during the monsoon. As the floodwaters recede, grasses such as Saccharum spontaneum and pioneer trees such as Trewia nudiflora, Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia catechu, and Ehretia laevis begin to colonize the area, and the grasslands regenerate rapidly. These alluvial plains transition into the sal forests flanking the hills along the lower reaches of river valleys.
The lower hill slopes above 1 000 m tend to be cooler and less drought-stressed during the spring pre-monsoon season. Here, subtropical evergreen broadleaf forests are dominated by tree taxa (Castanopsis, Schima) derived from subtropical East Asia. This elevation supports a high diversity of trees, with variation in community composition dependent on aspect, disturbance regime, and human-use patterns. Adjacent to and north of the subtropical forest is a band of subtropical pine forest dominated by Chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) and extending across practically the entire length of the mountain range.
Temperate humid forests equivalent to “cloud forests” thrive at elevations where moisture tends to condense and remain in the air during the warm, moist growing season, from April to November. These forests are dominated by evergreen broadleaf trees (e.g., Quercus, Lauraceae) in the lower part (2 000–2 500 m) and a mixture of evergreen conifers (e.g., Tsuga, Taxus) and winterdeciduous broadleaf species (e.g., Acer, Betula, Magnolia) in the upper part (2 500–3 000 m). Drier, south-facing slopes support extensive stands of arboreal Rhododendron species that may co-occur with oaks (Quercus semecarpifolia) or other ericaceous species like Lyonia ovalifolia. At higher elevations, nearly monotypic stands of Rhododendron arboreum may give way to forests that include many a diverse community of shrubby rhododendrons. These cloud forests in the east are rich in epiphytes, represented by several dicotyledons and a variety of mosses, ferns, and orchids, and provide rich nesting habitat for many bird species. Malingo bamboo (Arundinaria spp.) in the understory is food for the charismatic red panda (Ailurus fulgens, EN). Overall, the wetter Eastern Himalaya is richer in species than the Western Himalaya, and is home to some of the most species-rich temperate forests in the world (WWF and ICIMOD 2001).
Subalpine conifer forests occur from about 3 000 to 4 000 m, high enough to receive substantial winter snow. These forests are identified by the dominant conifer species, which in the Eastern Himalaya are fir (Abies spectablis), larch (Larix griffithii), hemlock (Tsuga dumosa), and junipers. The western forests of the Eastern Himalaya have extensive stands of blue pine (Pinus wallichiana), chilgoza pine (P. gerardiana), silver fir (Abies pindrow), and spruce (Picea smithiana). Typically, the emergent conifers have tall, straight trunks that rise above the canopy. In the Eastern Himalaya, the subalpine forests also have many deciduous broadleaf trees tucked in among the taller, more obvious conifers. Typical broadleaf trees include Betula, Acer, Sorbus, Prunus, and some high-elevation members of the Lauraceae and Araliaceae families. Large evergreen Rhododendron shrubs are also an important component of this zone.
The rhododendrons above the treeline form alpine scrub communities throughout the wetter parts of the Himalaya. Dense shrubberies of juniper and Rhododendron clothe hill slopes to elevations of 4 500 m, and provide cover for many wild mammal species. Compared to the broadleaf and conifer forests, plant richness in the alpine shrub and meadow ecoregions is much greater. Moist alpine scrub is better developed on shady, northfacing slopes that are protected from extreme winter cold by an insulating layer of snow. South-facing slopes support meadows dominated by Kobresia sedge and dicotyledonous forbs with scattered shrubs such as Berberis, Rosa, Lonicera, Cotoneaster, and others to elevations of 4 500 m, while dwarf rhododendrons, Cassiope, Hippophae, Cotoneaster, and Potentilla fruticosa persist to 4 700 m where microclimatic conditions allow.
Periglacial and subnival communities occur in the high alpine areas above 4 700 m, where the short growing season, high winds, and restless soils require specialization for survival. Soil creep is an important physical factor influencing the physiognomy of plant communities at these elevations. Stable soils support slow-growing rosette or cushion plants. Because the perennial structures of cushion plants are sequestered underground, these plants can withstand high winds. Common genera include Androsace, Arenaria, and Saxifraga. Rosette plants grow in more sheltered locations and include at least two genera, Meconopsis (poppy) and Primula, which have their global centers of diversity in the Eastern Himalaya. Among the numerous other alpine herbs are Potentilla, Ranunculus, many legume species, and the spectacular alpine composite Saussurea.
Although the nival zone of permanent rock and ice begins at 5 500–6 000 m, vascular plants can survive in microclimates at the highest elevations on Earth. For example, Arenaria bryophylla, a small, tufted cushionforming plant with small, stalkless flowers, was recorded at 6 180 m by A.F.R. Wollaston in 1921 (Wollaston, in Polunin and Stainton 1997). Other records of highaltitude flora include another cushion plant in the carnation family, Stellaria decumbans, at 6 140 m on the south slope of Makalu, and Ermania himalayensis, a highaltitude scree plant in the mustard family, at 6 300 m on the slopes of Mt. Kamet in the northwestern Himalaya.
Paleobotanical evidence indicates that much of the forest vegetation in the Himalayan Region is derived from the tropical evergreen forests of the Indian Peninsula, which was part of Gondwanaland, while the alpine flora evolved after the Himalayan uplift (Ram and Singh 1994). Since this period, Pleistocene glaciation has influenced the flora and fauna, especially the southward migration of the species from the Central Asian, Alps, Mediterranean, and Sino-Japanese regions (Gupta 1994). At the same time, physical and climatic barriers along the altitudinal transect, temperature extremes, and high intensity of ultraviolet radiation have resulted in high endemism, and evolution of mutants, polyploids, and ecotypes among several taxa.
The Himalaya are home to many unique and diverse human groups. Culturally diverse ethnic groups living in the river valleys and mountain slopes of the Himalaya differ from each other in terms of language, culture, tradition, religion, and patterns of resource use. Over 27 ethnic groups are found in Nepal, either of Tibetan-Burmese or Indo-Aryan descent, while Bhutan has three main ethnic groups: the Ngalongs, Sharchogpas, and Lhotsampas, all three of which are dominant, with many smaller groups with their own unique cultural practices. The northeast part of India, however, has over 500 distinct ethnic groups (Stirn and Van Ham 2001). The people belong to numerous tribal groups with ancient cultures and traditions, although there is also a sizeable population of non-tribal groups as well.

Biodiversity
Of the estimated 10 000 species of vascular plants in the Himalayan region, approximately 3 160 are endemic. Angiosperms are divided into 192 families and 2 100 genera. The largest families of flowering plants are Orchidaceae (750 species), Compositae (734 species), Gramineae (520 species), and Fabaceae (507 species). The Eastern Himalaya is also a center of diversity for several widely distributed plant taxa, such as Rhododendron, Primula, and Pedicularis (Sahni 1979).
The endemic flora are represented by 71 endemic genera, of which about 40 are confined to the Eastern Himalaya and about 15 to the Western Himalaya. The endemic genera include Jaeschkea, Parajaeschkea, Drimycarpus, Parrotiopsis, Listrobanthes, Megacodon, Pseudaechmanthera, Pseudostachyum, Pteracanthus, Sympagis, Catamixis, Physolena, Pottingeria, Roylea, Trachycarpus, and Triaenanthus. Drimycarpus and Parrotiopsis are monotypic genera that represent arborescent taxa, while Listrobanthes, Megacodon, Pseudaechmanthera, Pseudostachyum, Pteracanthus, Sympagis, and Triaenanthus are shrubs. Five families are endemic to the region, namely Tetracentraceae, Hamamelidaceae, Circaeasteraceae, Butomaceae, and Stachyuraceae, while over 90% of the species in Berberidaceae and Saxifragaceae are endemic to the Himalaya (Singh et al. 2000).
A large number of orchids, many representing neoendemic taxa, have been recently reported from Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh, which probably indicates that further exploration in the Himalaya will reveal a higher degree of plant endemism. Although many of the other non-vascular taxonomic groups have yet to be adequately documented, nearly 13 000 species of fungi and around 1 100 species of lichens have been described.
Overall, the fauna of the Himalaya is not well known; most of the information available for this region pertains to larger vertebrates, especially large mammals and birds that are easily observed. Smaller mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and fishes have been undersampled, while the insects have been largely ignored, with the exception of a few studies of the Himalayan Lepidoptera (e.g., Mani 1986; Haribal 1992).
Around 300 mammal species have been recorded across the Himalayan Range, of which 12 are endemic to the Himalaya. The endemics include the golden langur (Trachypithecus geei, EN), which has a very restricted range in the Eastern Himalaya; the Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus, VU); and the pygmy hog (Sus salvanius, CR), a species restricted to grasslands in the Terai-Duar savannah and grasslands, with its stronghold in the Manas National Park. The Namdapha flying squirrel (Biswamoyopterus biswasi, CR) also represents the only endemic genus in the Himalaya, but is a poorly known species described on the basis of a single specimen taken from Namdapha National Park. The mammalian fauna in the lowlands is typically Indo-Malayan, consisting of langurs (Semnopithecus spp.), Asiatic wild dogs (Cuon alpinus, VU), sloth bears (Melursus ursinus, VU), gaurs (Bos gaurus, VU), and several species of deer, such as muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak) and sambar (Cervus unicolor). In the mountains, the fauna transitions into Palearctic species, consisting of snow leopard (Uncia uncia, EN), black bear (Ursus thibetanus, VU), and a diverse ungulate assemblage that includes blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), takin (Budorcas taxicolor, VU), and argali (Ovis ammon, VU).
Around 979 bird species are recorded from across the region, with 15 endemics, including one species, the Himalayan quail (Ophrysia superciliosa, CR), which represents an endemic genus. However, it has not been recorded with any certainty since 1876 (although there were reports of possible sightings around Nainital in 2003). Four Endemic Bird Areas (EBAs), as defined by BirdLife International (Stattersfield et al. 1998), overlap entirely or partly with the Himalaya Hotspot. The Western Himalaya EBA, which is almost entirely contained within the hotspot, has 11 bird species restricted entirely to it, including the aforementioned Himalayan quail, the cheer pheasant (Catreus wallichii, VU), and the western tragopan (Tragopan melanocephalus, VU), which is also endemic to the hotspot. The Central Himalaya EBA has two bird species confined entirely to within its boundaries, the spiny babbler (Turdoides nipalensis) and the Nepal wren babbler (Pnoepyga immaculata), and both are also endemic to the hotspot. The Eastern Himalaya EBA, which encompasses part of the Chin Hills (here considered part of the Indo-Burma Hotspot), has 19 bird species endemic to it, including the rusty-throated wren babbler (Spelaeornis badeigularis, VU), chestnut-breasted partridge (Arborophila mandellii, VU), white-throated tit (Aegithalos niveogularis), and orange bullfinch (Pyrrhula aurantiaca), all four of which are also endemic to the Himalaya Hotspot. Finally, the Assam Plains EBA is shared with the Indo-Burma Hotspot. The black-necked crane (Grus nigricollis, VU), a large bird of cultural and religious significance to the people in the Himalaya, spends the winters in the Himalayan region, but migrates into the wetlands of the Tibetan Plateau across the Himalayan Crest.
Systematic surveys of reptiles and amphibians are lacking for this hotspot, but it is known that at least 177 species of reptiles have been recorded, of which 49 are endemic. The lizard Mictopholis austeniana is the only representative of the sole endemic genus, but is known only from the holotype. Other genera are well represented, and have many endemic species. These include Oligodon (nine species, six endemic), Cyrtodactylus (10 species, seven endemic), and Japalura (seven species, all endemic). In terms of amphibians, 124 species are known to occur, and 41 species of these are endemic. The amphibian fauna is dominated by anurans, although two species of caecilians occur. One of these (Ichthyophis sikkimensis) is endemic and occurs in northern India (in the States of Sikkim and West Bengal) and extreme eastern Nepal (in Dabugaun in the Ilam District) at elevations of 1 000 to 1 550 m.
The Himalaya Hotspot has fish species from three major drainage systems, the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra. However, the cold, steep high-altitude drainages have fewer fishes than the lowland rivers, and many species ranges only just reach into this hotspot; as a result, few species (33 out of 269) are endemic. The three most diverse of the 30 different families represented here are minnows and carps (Cyprinidae; 93 species and 11 endemics), river loaches (Balitoridae; 47 species and 14 endemics), and sisorid catfishes (Sisoridae; 34 species and four endemics). The genus Schizothorax is represented by at least six endemic species in the high mountain lakes and streams, while two other genera of these “snowtrout,” the genus Ptychobarbus and the Ladakh snowtrout (Gymnocypris biswasi) —a monotypic genus now thought to be extinct— are also unique to the Himalaya.

Flagship Species
The Himalaya support globally significant populations of several large mammals, including the tiger (Panthera tigris), Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), and greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis, EN), in the foothill grasslands and forests. The range of the Asian elephant in the Himalayan Region is marginal; however, the populations along the north bank of the Brahmaputra River in Assam are one of India's largest and most important (Sukumar 1992). The alluvial grasslands support some of the highest densities of tigers in the world (Karanth and Nichols 1998), while the greater onehorned rhinoceros is restricted to several small, isolated populations within protected areas. The Eastern Himalayan Region is the last bastion for this charismatic megaherbivore with its armor-plated and prehistoric appearance. The Brahmaputra and Ganges rivers that flow along the Himalayan foothills also support globally important populations of the Gangetic dolphin (Platanista gangetica), a freshwater dolphin with two Endangered subspecies. It is endemic to the river system that flows along the foothills of the Himalayan Mountain Range. Dolphin populations are threatened by various human activities, including fishing, dams, and pollution, which affect both the animals themselves and their prey base.
Other flagships are wild water buffalo (Bubalus arnee) and swamp deer (Cervus duvaucelii), which are restricted to protected areas in southern Nepal and northeastern India, and represent some of the last remaining populations of these species in the world. The snow leopard has a wide distribution across the Himalaya, extending into the high mountains of the Trans-Himalaya, but the populations in the Himalayan Mountains are important because of the low density of this high-altitude predator.
Some of Asia's largest birds live in the Himalaya, and are represented by globally significant populations. Most are threatened by various anthropogenic causes, such as the vultures (Gyps spp.), which have undergone dramatic declines after feeding on carcasses of cattle that have been treated with Diclofenac (Risebrough 2004). This is a classic example illustrating the effect of drugs and pesticides along the food chain. The greater and lesser adjutants (Leptoptilos spp.) in the foothill grasslands and broadleaf forests, as well as the hornbills in the broadleaf forests, are threatened by loss of nesting trees and lack of food sources. Other large birds include the sarus crane (Grus antigone), which inhabits the wetlands along the foothills; the black-necked crane, which spends winters in montane wetland sites; and the lammergeier (Gypaetus barbatus), which soars among the high mountains.
There are also several smaller mammals and birds that carry flagship status. The golden langur is a beautiful, golden-yellow primate that lives in the broadleaf forests between the Sankosh and Manas rivers in the Eastern Himalaya in both Assam and Bhutan, while the red panda inhabits the old-growth mixed conifer forests. The white-winged duck (Cairina scutulata, EN), the endemic white-bellied heron (Ardea insignis, EN), and the Bengal florican (Houbaropsis bengalensis, EN) are just a few of the other avian flagships in the region.

Threats
Despite their apparent remoteness and inaccessibility, the Himalaya have not been spared human-induced biodiversity loss. People have lived in the mountains and eked out a livelihood there for thousands of years. However, with better access to global market economies, both dependence on natural resources and the economic expectations and aspirations of the people have increased in recent years. Access has also encouraged immigration into montane areas from outside in some regions, such as Arunachal Pradesh, as well as movements within the Himalayan Mountains, such as in Nepal, where people have migrated from the mountains to the lowland terai. The consequences of the latter movements have been to concentrate people in the more productive ecosystems that are also the richest in biodiversity, whereas the former have resulted in a breakdown of cultural and social traditions and ties to conservation of natural resources among the tribal people in the mountains. Moreover, better health care and disease control have resulted in a net increase of human populations, placing a greater burden on the sensitive montane ecosystems.
Today, the distribution of remaining habitat in the Himalaya is patchy. The steadily increasing human population has been responsible for extensive clearing of forests and grasslands for cultivation, and widespread logging. Cultivation has a soft, upper-elevation limit of around 2 100 m on slopes exposed to the monsoon, but many people farm crops like barley, potato, and buckwheat at higher elevations in the inner valleys and transmontane regions, and in some areas, such as Jumla, Kashmir, Lahoul, and Ladakh, there are major agriculturally based population centers well above this elevation. The land is also often cleared by pastoralists for their livestock during the summer months. The conversion of forests and grasslands for agriculture and settlements has led to large-scale deforestation and habitat fragmentation in Nepal, and in the Indian States of Sikkim, Darjeeling, and Assam. In the northeast Indian states, loss of dense forests is estimated to be as high as 317 km2 every year. The impact of forest clearing is less intense in Bhutan compared to the neighboring countries because of the low density of human population and the government's policy of a cautious approach to development and a commitment to the conservation of natural resources.
Large areas of remaining habitat are highly degraded. Overgrazing by domestic livestock in the resilient lowlands as well as in the sensitive alpine ecosystems is widespread. In the former, huge numbers of free-ranging, unproductive cattle graze the forests and grasslands, destroying all undergrowth and preventing regeneration; in the alpine ecosystems, virtually all areas are grazed by increasingly larger herds of domestic yak (Miller 2002). The fragile meadows are also subject to overexploitation of their flora for the traditional medicine trade. Because the medicinal plant collectors invariably uproot entire plants, regeneration is retarded. Wood extraction for fuel and fodder also contribute to loss of undergrowth and regeneration, and changes in species composition. Fuelwood is collected for domestic consumption as well as for export. These activities have inflicted severe and sometimes irreversible damage, and in many areas forests are no longer able to support natural ecosystems and their associated biodiversity.
It is possible to make an estimate of natural vegetation remaining intact by considering the state of natural habitat of the various ecoregions that make up this hotspot (Wikramanayake et al. 1998). The Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests ecoregion has lost more than 70% of its natural habitat (although most of the hill forests above 1 000 m still remain uncut because the shallow, erosion-prone soils are unsuitable for cultivation), with the remaining forests in scattered fragments. Over 90% of the adjacent Terai-Duar savanna and grassland ecoregion has been converted to agriculture and settlements, and most of the remaining habitat is now within protected areas. The temperate broadleaf forests in the western extent of the Himalayan range have lost over 70% of their natural vegetation, although several large patches remain in the extreme western part. The eastern temperate broadleaf forests have fared better, with almost 70% of the natural habitat still remaining in large patches (particularly in northeastern India and Bhutan), but shifting agriculture has resulted in extensive habitat degradation. Likewise, the adjacent Brahmaputra Valley, a region characterized by remarkable productivity, and hence a long history of cultivation, is three-quarters cleared, with the largest forest blocks confined to protected areas in central Assam.
As with the temperate broadleaf forests, habitat loss in the Western Himalayan Sub-Alpine Conifer Forests is severe, with over 70% of the natural vegetation being lost. Notwithstanding, this region contains some of the leastdisturbed forests in the Western Himalaya. In the Eastern Himalaya, the reverse is true, although on gentler slopes within the northeastern hill states of India most of the broadleaf forests (over 80%) have been affected due to slash-and-burn (jhum) agriculture. Most of the Alpine Shrub and Meadows is remote and inaccessible and, consequently, largely intact thanks to high elevation and harsh climate. However, all the gentle and accessible meadows have undergone extensive habitat degradation due to overgrazing, trampling, and commercial harvest for medicinal plants. In total, then, nearly 50% of the alpine vegetation in the region can be said to be intact, although in Sikkim, Bhutan, and Arunachal, over 60% of the alpine vegetation is still intact. Since this degradation can not be estimated from remote-sensed data sources, it is difficult to assess its extent, as grazing is prevalent all throughout the alpine regions. In total, we estimate that around 25% of the original vegetation of this hotspot, including alpine areas, remains in intact condition.
Besides habitat loss and degradation, poaching is rife across the Himalayan Mountains: tigers and rhinoceros are hunted for their body parts, which are much prized in traditional Chinese medicines, while the snow leopard and red panda are taken for their beautiful pelts. The remoteness of the Himalayan Region and the open borders have facilitated this illegal trade.
Political unrest, usually in the form of insurgencies, plague certain sites in the Himalayan region. Protected areas and forests that harbor wildlife also serve as refuges for insurgents, who indulge in indiscriminate poaching and felling of trees to obtain funds. In Nepal, the Maoist insurgency has severely constrained conservation activities on the ground since 1996. Similar insurgencies occur in Assam and Nagaland in India, while the dispute between India and Pakistan over the Kashmir border has had implications for wildlife conservation in these areas.

Conservation
Approximately 15% of the Himalaya Hotspot has some form of legal protection, although this percentage drops to 10% when one considers only those in IUCN categories I to IV. Protected areas have a mixed history in the Himalaya. In Assam, Manas and Sonai Rupai were first established as wildlife sanctuaries in 1928 and 1934, respectively, and are among the earliest contemporary protected areas in Asia (IUCN 1990). Most other protected areas are relatively recent, having been established within the past three to four decades. However, many hill-tribe communities have traditionally recognized and protected sacred groves, which have been effective refuges for biodiversity for centuries (Gadgil, 1985). Today, several protected areas —Corbett National Park, Manas National Park, Kaziranga National Park, Chitwan National Park, and Sagarmatha National Park— have been distinguished as World Heritage Sites for their contribution to global biodiversity.
In the 1970s and 1980s, several protected areas were established or extended in the northeastern Himalayan states of India, creating a network that showcased the biodiversity in the area. The protected areas in the northwestern Indian states include some of the world's most renowned, such as Corbett and Rajaji national parks, which harbor important populations of flagship species like elephants and tigers.
In Nepal, at least 26 666 km2 of land has been designated as protected areas, including eight national parks, four wildlife reserves, one hunting reserve, three conservation areas, and five buffer zones (WWF-Nepal 2004). Chitwan, the country's first national park, was established in 1973. Previously a hunting preserve for the royal family, the park is well known for its tiger and greater one-horned rhinoceros populations. Of particular significance are the Annapurna Conservation Area, the Kanchenjunga Conservation Area, and the Makalu-Barun National Park, which have become models for community-based biodiversity management.
The protected area system of Bhutan includes five national parks, three wildlife sanctuaries, and one strict nature reserve, as well as 12 corridors covering almost 16 000 km2 (Biodiversity Action Plan 2002). The current system was bequeathed as a “Gift to the Earth from the People of Bhutan” in 1999. Although a protected area system was established in Bhutan as early as the 1960s, this system was dominated by the Jigme Dorji Wangchuck National Park. The park was mostly confined to the north of the country, and did little to contribute towards biodiversity conservation because most of the park protected vast areas of permanent rock and ice. In 1995, the protected area system was revised to include all nine of the current protected areas accounting for almost 26% of the total land area in Bhutan. In 1999, another 9% was added to the system in the form of biological corridors, which linked the protected areas to create a conservation landscape extending across the country. The landscape is known as the Bhutan Biological Conservation Complex (Sherpa et al. 2003).
The many protected areas that lie adjacent to each other across national borders present promising opportunities for transboundary conservation activities. The Manas National Park in Bhutan and Manas Tiger Reserve in Assam, India is one such complex. Biological corridors also provide opportunities to link the protected areas across international boundaries and create habitat linkages, such as between Bardia in Nepal and Katerniaghat in India. Another important transboundary initiative is Kanchanjunga Conservation Area (KCA) in the Taplejung District in Nepal, an area covering some 1 650 km2 named for Mt. Kanchanjunga (8 586 m) —the third highest mountain in the world— and planned as a tri-national peace park with the Tibet Autonomous Region of China to the north, and Sikkim in India to the east. The Kanchanjunga Conservation Area adjoins the Kanchendzoga National Park in Sikkim, and extension of the Qomolungma Nature Reserve in the Tibet Autonomous Region is under way to include the area bordering Kanchanjunga. The new strategy for creating conservation landscapes in the Himalaya will not only help to conserve the region's species and ecological processes that sustain biodiversity, but also contribute towards building regional cooperation through transboundary conservation efforts, thereby paving the way for a secure future for Himalayan biodiversity.
Despite the efforts to revise the protected area system across the Himalayan Mountains, about 17% of it, or over 40 000 km2, still consists of permanent rock and ice (Alnutt et al. 2002). The protected areas of the alpine regions, in particular, are over-represented by these biologically depauperate habitats. Across the range, 15 protected areas consist of more than 50% rock and ice. Further expansion of the protected area network should consider minimizing representation of these areas.
Investment in biodiversity conservation in the Himalayan Region comes primarily from national governments, bilateral and multilateral agencies, and international and regional NGOs. The national governments, backed by international agencies such as the Global Environmental Facility (GEF), United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the World Bank, the European Union (EU), the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA), WWF, and the MacArthur Foundation, are supporting projects to improve protected area management, sustainable natural resources, and livelihoods. All countries in the Himalaya Hotspot have ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity, and have prepared National Biodiversity Conservation Strategies and Biodiversity Action Plans.
While there have been many successes in establishing protected areas and more experimental, multiple landuse conservation areas, much remains to be done to safeguard the biological wealth of the Himalayan Region currently lying outside formally protected reserves. The protected areas of the Himalaya, particularly in the lowlands along south-facing slopes, are too small to maintain viable populations of threatened species. Successful longterm conservation requires that efforts be made to expand the conservation benefits beyond existing protected areas to adjacent habitats, as many species are dependent upon the seasonal use of habitats distributed along elevational gradients and across national boundaries.

Wednesday, February 25, 2009

Climate Change and Nepal

Nepal is a small landlocked mountainous country located between the world's two most populous countries: India to the east, west and south and China to the north. The total land area is 147,181 square kilometer with world's most fragile Himalayan ecosystem.
Agriculture is a main activity of the economy and this covers more than 80 % of the population. About 80% of the total population depends on the forest for the daily fuel wood supply. About 6000 rivers and streams have made country Nepal, as one of the richest countries in the world.
Nepal, along with over 150 other countries, signed the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992. Nepal ratified the convention on 2nd May in 1994, and this convention came into force on 31st July in 1994.

In accordance with the IPCC guidelines, Nepal's GHG inventory is divided into 5 main categories: Energy activities, Industrial Processes, Agriculture, Land-use change and Forestry, and Waste Management. The national GHG inventory represents emission data for three gases having direst Greenhouse effects: Carbon dioxide, Methane and Nitrous Oxide.
Carbon dioxide: Net emissions of CO2 in the country were estimated at 9747Gg for the base year 1994/1995. The contributor includes the transport sector (31%), Industrial sector (27%), Residential sector (22%), Commercial sector (11%) and the remaining (9%) is shared by Agriculture sector.
Methane: In 1994/95, total methane emissions in Nepal were estimated at 948Gg. 867Gg emissions came from Agriculture sector. Energy related combustion activities, such as biomass burning; incomplete combustion of fossil fuels had also contributed in methane production. Lower amount of methane was also estimated from solid waste disposal and waste water treatment.
Nitrous Oxide: The major source of nitrous oxide emissions in 1994/95 was agriculture soils from where 27 Gg of this gas were released to the atmosphere. Also 2 Gg of N2O emissions were estimated from manure management for the same year. Indirect N2O emissions from human sewage were estimated to be 1.10 Gg for the base year 1994/95.
Vulnerability
Various anthropogenic activities are altering the chemical composition of the atmosphere. Data on climate states that there is a rising trend of temperature these changed impacts are seen mainly on agriculture, water resource, forest and health sector.
Majority of the people are dependent on agriculture and this sector is adversely affected by the loss of the top fertile soil due to soil erosion, landslides and floods. Therefore, soil loss is one of the major causes of decline in agricultural production. The increase in temperature will adversely affect warmer environment crop. The yield will be reduced for all crops at 4o C temperature rise.
Changes in hydrological cycles and the depletion of water resources are some of the top
environmental challenges facing Nepal in the context of global warming. It is estimated that a temperature rise of 4oC can result in the loss of 70% of snow and glacier area due to melting of snow and ice. This melt water will contribute to the faster development of glacier lakes, and this will lead to increased potential for Glacier Lake out burst flood hazards.
Forest of Nepal has been shrinking mainly because of anthropogenic activities. Forest area and quality are decreasing with extensive utilization and increasing demands for forest products. Further, global warming may cause forest damage through migration towards the polar region, changes in their composition, extinction of species etc.
Risk of diseases like Malaria, Kalaazar and Japanese Encephalitis outbreak on health is another potential impact of climate change. Particularly, subtropical and warm temperate regions of Nepal would be more vulnerable.
It is quite difficult to implement any policies and measures unless public has deep perception and appreciation of the climate change issues. Political and socio- economic conditions and circumstances again prevent the country fully understanding the government's climate change related policy formulation.
Technology transfer is an important to assist developing country like Nepal to address climate change appropriately. Financial support and appropriate terms and condition are the crucial things governing the transfer process. Nepal as a country with no fossil fuels deposits should focus for renewable energy like hydropower, biomass. This can certainly meet the energy needs of the country from emission free sources. Because of this, Nepal is in safe position to take the advantage of the global concern over climate change.

Forest and Climate Change Adaptation in Nepal 2008

International conference on "Adaptation of Forests and Forest Management to Changing Climate with Emphasis on Forest Health: A Review of Science, Policies, and Practices" is currently ongoing at UmeƄ, Sweden from August 25-28, 2008.
Organized by IUFRO, SLU and FAO, the conference focuses on the current state of knowledge of ongoing changes in climatic conditions in different regions of the world, and the implications of these changes for forest management and conservation. There are three papers and a poster related to Nepalese forestry being presented at the conference.
POSSIBILITY OF ADOPTING REDD PRINCIPLE IN THE CONTEXT OF NEPAL
Bishwa Nath Oli
Abstract: Deforestation is the second leading cause of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions behind energy production, and is responsible for about one quarter of anthropogenic GHG emissions. The 13th Conference of Parties of the UNFCCC held in December 2007 had put forward a concept of REDD (Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation) in which developing countries would be provided financial incentives for reducing emissions from deforestation. This step has opened an opportunity for Nepal to work on a carbon credit mechanism for the forestry sector. With a view to exploring the possibilities of adopting REDD principle in Nepal, international policy and dialogues on REDD related to policy implementation, and management aspects for the forest sector of Nepal are analyzed. Deforestation and forest degradation are central environmental issues, both globally and also in Nepal. In the 1960s, the forest cover of Nepal was about 60% but this has declined to 42.7% in 1978 and 39.6% in the 1990s. A number of policies and both legal and institutional measures are available for the effective management of forests in Nepal. However, there are no single policy instruments that deal with climate change issues. Community forests are well recognized models of participatory forestry. Recognizing the greater involvement and costs of local people in managing the community forests, the REDD principle can be applied in these community forests. However, some issues still prevent the full acceptance of the REDD mechanism. There is a weak trend of data on forest cover, growing stock, biomass stock in Nepal and data on carbon stock is not available. National capacity to estimate and monitor deforestation and implement approaches to reduce emissions need to be developed, at least at a pilot scale.

ROLE OF COMMUNITY-BASED FOREST MANAGEMENT TO ADDRESS CLIMATE CHANGE PROBLEM: A CASE OF NEPALESE COMMUNITY FORESTRYM.
Dhakal and M. Masuda
Abstract: Forests have central roles in climate change. The conservation of forests sequesters carbon from the atmosphere and also regulates the carbon cycle. However, knowingly or not, the world’s forests are being deforested and degraded annually at the rate of 0.18% and their carbon emitted to the atmosphere. The IPCC (2007) reported that deforestation and forest degradation accounts for one fifth of the total carbon emission, which is second in proportion to fossil fuels. Since 1.6 billion people depend to varying degree on forests for their daily livelihood, not all deforestation is undesirable. Therefore, to conserve forests and find livelihood opportunities for forests surrounding people is a prerequisite to address many climate change problems, especially in developing countries, and is a growing concern to forestry researchers, planners and policy makers. The study examines the role of community-based forest management in carbon mitigation and adaptation, taking the examples of Nepal’s community forestry program. In the program, the Government hands over a part of national forests to local communities with sole forest management authority. However, the Government retains ownership rights on forestland. Local communities, organized through a local institution called Community Forest User Group (CFUG), manage the forests. They also form an operational plan with technical prescriptions and a constitution with forest management rules and regulations. The implementation results showed that the CFUGs are not only effective in organizing local people and constructing a local institution for forest conservation and management activities, but also they are able to collect a community fund from the sale of forest products and carry out various community development activities. These development activities have roles to improve the livelihood of forests surrounding people and eventually to address climate changeproblems.

EXPLORING FOREST MANAGEMENT SOLUTIONS IN TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM TO ADDRESS CLIMATE CHANGE ISSUES
Arun Rijal
Abstract: Though the share of Nepal in the global emission of greenhouse gases is negligible (with 0.13 t per capita CO2 emissions), it has to face the consequences of global warming. Such warming is raising temperatures by 0.06oC per year. Due to this over the past few years, Nepal is experiencing severe droughts and other adverse weather conditions which have affected agriculture, water bodies, forest and created several other environmental problems. Shortages of water and food availability in Asia are likely to be exacerbated by climate change in coming decades, as stressed by the IPCC (2007). In Nepal there has been considerable expansion in the exploitation of natural resources which has resulted in increasing environmental degradation. This study found that rural communities of Nepal are rich in traditional knowledge which they have practiced since unknown past, which have protected and conserved plants, animals, water resources and other components of their life support systems while exploitation of natural resources took place in the areas where such knowledge and community management are ignored. Traditional knowledge is also found to be scientifically based and has helped to address climate change-related issues like soil degradation, soil fertility, genetic erosion, soil respiration, loss of soil moisture, land erosion, landslides, carbon assimilation, watershed degradation, drying of water bodies, decrease in water level and land productivity. Traditional forest management practice has also helped in protecting and restoring forests and sequestering million of tons of carbon each year which helps to address greenhouse gas problems. Conflict related to benefit distribution is one of the serious threats to forests in Nepal which could be addressed by using knowledge from traditional practices which is efficient in equity distribution. Recognition of traditional knowledge in policy and expansion of its practices in areas experiencing climate change induced problems could help to address both ecological and economic challenges.

ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY OF COMMUNITY FOREST MANAGEMENT – A CASE STUDY FROM THE MIDHILLS OF NEPAL
S.K. Baral and K. Katzensteiner
Abstract: Over-utilization during the past fifty years have led to severe forest degradation in mid-hill region of Nepal and increased the risk of natural hazards dramatically. The question is, if community forestry (CF) is a proper restoration strategy to enhance ecosystem resistance and resilience against climate change. Though CF has succeeded in improving the forest cover, concerns arise with respect to biodiversity, carbon sequestration, and the nutritional status considering continuously high biomass exports. The present study compares tree nutrition, soil status and vegetation diversity of a 21 ha community forest and a nearby, municipality owned, less impacted forest of the same size (MF) in the lower temperate, mixed broadleaved vegetation belt. Eight permanent plots (10m x 10m) were established both in the CF and the MF where stand properties (tree species, height, DBH) and ground vegetation were surveyed and soil and foliar samples were taken for chemical analyses. Disturbance was estimated in the field at an ordinal scale (1=low, 4=extreme), based on topsoil and vegetation indicators. Shannon index, Simpson’s index and species evenness indicate a significantly higher tree species diversity in MF compared to CF, whereas the understorey is more diverse in CF. Similarly, basal areas and stand densities are higher in MF (38 m2ha-1 and 2725 n.ha-1) than in CF (19 m2ha-1and 2525 n.ha-1). Topsoil (0-10 cm) bulk densities are significantly lower in MF than in CF, topsoil C and N content are significantly higher in MF. The foliar macro-nutrient contents are higher in trees of MF. There is a negative correlation between Shannon index and soil C and N contents with the degree of disturbance. Given the fact that CF was established only 17 years ago on completely degraded land, it can be concluded that forest products can be supplied sustainably from CF while maintaining species diversity and soil functions up to an intermediate degree of disturbance. Severe disturbed forests are however considered to be less adaptive to changing environmental conditions.
Details about other papers are available at the conference website.

Tuesday, February 24, 2009

Protected Areas of Nepal

Sagarmatha National Park

Sagarmatha National Park, is located in eastern Nepal, containing parts of the Himalayas and the southern half of Mount Everest. The park was created July 19, 1976 and in 1979 was inscribed as a Natural World Heritage Site. Sagarmatha is Sanskrit for "Sagar = sky (not to be confused with sea/ocean) and matha = forehead or head " and is the modern Nepali name for Mount Everest.
The park encompasses an area of 1,148 km² and ranges in elevation from its lowest point of 2,845 m (9,335 ft) at Jorsalle to 8,850 m (29,035 ft) at the summit of Everest. Barren land above 5,000 m (16,400 ft) comprises 69% of the park while 28% is grazing land and the remaining 3% is forested. Most of the park area is very rugged and steep, with its terrain cut by deep rivers and glaciers. Unlike other parks, this park can be divided into four climate zones because of the rising altitude. The climatic zones include a forested lower zone, a zone of alpine scrub, the upper alpine zone which includes upper limit of vegetation growth, and the Arctic zone where no plants can grow. The types of plants and animals that are found in the park depend on the altitude. The park contains the upper watershed of the Dudh Kosi river basin system.
The park's visitor centre is located at the top of a hill in Namche Bazaar, also where a company of the Nepal Army is stationed for protecting the park. The park's southern entrance is a few hundred metres north of Mondzo at 2,835 m (9,300 ft), a one day hike from Lukla.

Flora and fauna:
In the lower forested zone, birch, juniper, blue pines, firs, bamboo and rhododendron grow. Above this zone all vegetation are found to be dwarf or shrubs. As the altitude increases, plant life is restricted to lichens and mosses. Plants cease to grow at about 5,750 m (18,690 ft), because this is the permanent snow line in the Himalayas.
Forests of pine and hemlock cover the lower elevations of the national park. At elevations of around 3500 meters and above, forests of silver fir, birch, rhododendron and juniper trees are found. The forests provide habitat to at least 118 species of birds, including Danphe, Blood pheasant, Red-billed chough, and yellow-billed chough. Sagarmatha National Park is also home to a number of rare species, including musk deer, wild yak, snow leopard, Himalayan black bear and red panda. Besides, many other animals such as Himalayan thars, deer, langur monkeys, hares, mountain foxes, martens, and Himalayan wolves are found in the park. However, their numbers are not very large and many visitors may not be able to see them.
The partial pressure of oxygen falls with altitude. Therefore, the animals that are found here are adapted to living on less oxygen as well as a cold temperature. They have thick coats to retain body heat. Some of them have shortened limbs to prevent loss of body heat. The Himalayan bears go into hibernation in caves during the winter when there is no food available.

References:

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Sagarmatha National Park
http://www.wcmc.org.uk/protected_areas/data/wh/sagarmat.html
Official UNESCO website entry
Park Regulations
Mount Everest National Park: Sagarmatha Mother of the Universe by Margaret Jefferies
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagarmatha_National_Park"
Categories: IUCN Category II National parks of Nepal World Heritage Sites in Nepal Mount Everest

Trees of Nepal

Nepal has a variety of beautiful trees, of which the Banyan and the Peepul are associated with Hindu and Buddhist holy sites, frequently found beside temples and shrines. It is considered that the original tree under which Maya Devi gave birth to her son Gautama Siddhartha was not a peepul tree, but probably a Sal; it may have survived into the 6th or 7th century AD.

The Eucalyptus were introduced into Nepal from Australia in the 19th century, and in Kathmandu can be smelt as you walk along a street after rain has fallen. The Spruce, an evergreen, coniferous pine tree which took its name from Prussia where it traditionally came from; the Juniper another evergreen is a crucial ingredient in the flavouring of gin, and in medicines it is used as a diuretic. Laurel, or bay tree, is well known, and, The Cedar and Deodar are found throughout Nepal, with the cedar often used to make incense, and in west Nepal there is an indigenous Cypress called Himalayan Cypress. The treeline in Nepal is at 5,000 metres, and above this no trees are found.

In the Annapurna Conservation Area are Alpine Pasture, Alpine Meadow, Trans-Himalayan Steppe, Fire-Blue Pine Forest, Birch Forest, Rhododendron Forest, Sub-alpine Juniper Forest, Hemlock and Oak forest, Cypress Forest, East Himalayan Oak and Lauren Forest, Alder Forest, and Schima-Castanopsis Forest.

In the Kanchenjungha Conservation Area are Dwarf Rhododendron Scrub, Rhododendron shrubberies, Fir and Larch forest, Mixed broad leaved forest, East Himalayan Oak and Laurel, and Schim-Castanopsis Forest.

In the Khaptad National Park are Fir, Oak and Rhododendron Forest, West Himalayan Fir and Hemlock forest, Mountain oak, Mixed oak and laurel forest, Chir Pine and broad leaved forest.

In the Langtang National Park are Alpine pasure, juniper scrub, alpine meadow, dwarf rhododendron, juniper shrubs, fir and larch forest, mixed blue pin and oak forest, laurel and chir pine forest.

In the Makalu-Barun Conservation Area are alpine pasture, alpine meadow, and dwarf rhododendron scrub, fir and birch forest, and rhododendron shrubberies, temperate mountain oak, oak and laurel forest, Hill Sal Forest.

In Rara National Park are alpine mats and scrub, rhododendron and juniper shrubland, fire forest, mountain oak, upper temperate blue pine forest, and spruce. Mixed oak and laurel forest.

In the Shey-Phoksundo National Park are alpine pasture, alpine mats and scrub, trans- himalayan steppe, blue pine, birch, rhododendron forest, larch, mountain oak, cedar and cypress forest, deciduous walnut, maple, alder forest, steppe with Euphorbia, Royleana, Grasses and Artemisia.
Source:http://www.welcomenepal.com/brand/aboutnepal_nature_biodiversity

Medicinal Plants of Nepal

Medicinal plants, Ayurveda and the Himalayas are intertwined in a very special manner and Nepal, right in the centre of the Himalayan region, has special significance. Medicinal plants are used in traditional rural remedies, Ayurveda medicines , Homoeopathic medicines, and many of them are also included in allopathic pharmacopeas.

The resource strained health services of Nepal, further complicated by an ever-unabated population growth, is said to serve only 15% of the 20 million population of the country giving only this small group access to modern health facilities. A large section of the population, mainly the rural people, still depend on primitive care such as traditional Ayurveda or herbal practitioners.

The use of locally available medicinal plants in the health care system of Nepal is a necessity, not a luxury.

The conservation, protection, cultivation and utilisation of this resource is a prime need of the country, of which thousands of species are available most of which are only available in the Himalayan Zone. The demand for these herbs is high and they can be cultivated on a large scale, but rare species of medicinal plants also need to be preserved.

Medicinal plants are an important component of the vegetation of Nepal, and the distribution pattern of medicinal plants has been found to be approximately 49.2% in the tropical zone (up to 1,000 meters), 53.96% in the sub-tropical zone (1,000 - 2,000 m), 35.7% in the temperate zone (2,000 - 3,000 m), 18.9% in the sub-alpine zone (3,000 - 4,000 m), and 7.14% in the alpine zone (4,000 m upwards). There are about 1,400 kinds of medicinal plants utilized by Ayurveda and traditional healers in Nepal.

Some of the important and wellknown medicinal plants follow: Alpine & sub-alpine medicinal plants: Aconitum Spp., Picrorrhiza scrophularaeflora, Swertia multicaulis, Rheum emodi, Nardostachys jatamansi, Ephedra gerardiana, Cordyceps sinensis, Dactylorhiza hatagirea.

Tropical and sub-tropical medicinal plants: Terminalias, Cassia fistula, Cassia catechu, Aegles marmelos, Rauwolfia serpentina, Phyllanthus emblica, Ricinus recemosus, Acorus clams, Acacia concinnity, Butte monster.

Temperate zone medicinal plants: Valeriana wallichii, Berberis, Datura, Solanum, Rubia, Zanthoxylum armatum, Gaultheria fragrautissima, Dioscorea deltoidea, Curulligo orchoidies.

Some of the regions where medicinal plants are abundantly found are, the Terai region of Nawalparasi, Chitwan, Bardiya, Dhanusha, Mid-hilly Region of Makawanpur, Syangja, Kaski, Lamgjung, Dolakha, Parvat, Ilam, Ramechhap, Nuwakot, and the Himalayan region of Dolpa, Mugu, Humla, Jumla, Manang, Mustang and Solukhumbu.

The institutions manufacturing Ayurveda medicinal products include Singha Durbar Vaidhya Khana Vikas Samiti, Kathmandu; Gorkha Ayurveda Company, Gorkha; Arogya Bhavan, Kathmandu; Siddha Ayurveda Pharmacy, Butwal; Pashupati Ayurveda Bhavan, Sarlahi; and Classical Herbal Group, Kathmandu Nowhere does nature manifest herself so vividly in all her playfulness as she does in the world of orchids. In their flowering pattern orchids are capable of mimicking a part of man as well as the animal world, at times, making us laugh. Monkey Face, Swan Neck, Little Bull, and The Velvet Bee are among the few names they have been given for their peculiar looks.
Source:http://www.welcomenepal.com/brand/aboutnepal_nature_biodiversity

Orchids of Nepal


In ancient Rome, Theophrastus, a student of Plato, was intriqued by the sight of a plant with a pair of roots. Orchis was the name he gave them, the Greek word for testicles.

The world abounds with some 500 to 600 genera and some 20,000 to 35,000 names, the largest of all plant families, and out of this, Nepal has 57 genera (27 Terrestrials and 30 Epiphytic) with a few Lithophytes. Wide spread into different ecological zones, from the foot hills of the Himalayas to the plains in the Terai, the orchid-world in Nepal is immensely interesting for nature lovers and horticultural experts.

Some terrestrial orchids which flower during July-August have a stem with only two leaves and purple flowers; another orchid from the same genera in west Nepal flowers during February-March and is orange-green.

In March-April in Godavari there are orchids with greenish fragrant flowers, and in Shivapuri and Kakani orchids with white or pale yellow flowers. During September-October Sundarijal has green orchids streaked with purple, and on the way to Daman in November pale mauve orchids line the banks of the road. All of the above areas are accessible in a couple of hours or less from Kathmandu, with Dhankuta and Hetauda a little further away sporting yellow flowers, and in Khandbari purple-brown with pale borders.

Nepal is indeed endowed with an incredible variety of orchids scattered all over the Himalayan kingdom. Dedrobium is the largest species, followed by Habenaria and Bulbophyllum. Anthogonium, Hemipilia and Lusia are some of the other varieties amongst the nearly two dozen single species families.

No destination in Nepal is devoid of orchids including most of the trekking routes, and near Kathmandu the areas to visit are the Godavari Botanical Gardens to the south, Sundarijal to the north, Nagarjun to the west and Dhulikhel to the east. You will find orchids at one or more of these areas all year round.
Source:http://www.welcomenepal.com/brand/aboutnepal_nature_biodiversity